Jul 20, · Terkourafi M () Politeness in Cypriot Greek: a frame-based approach. PhD thesis. University of Cambridge, Cambridge; Watts RJ. Politeness. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; [Google Scholar] Westfall SS () The Obamas: how we deal with our own racist experiences. People. 17 Dec May 31, · Bob Roberts, Ph.D. unless one of two things obtain. First, your organization has a set of internal customs or formal rules regarding the signature. Second, if your degrees are in different areas. For example, Bob Roberts. Ph.D. Management Science. MS Nursing. For interrelated fields, the Ph.D. supersedes the master's degree and ceases being Most of them are native speakers and PhD holders able to take care of any assignment you need help with. M. original pages written. Each paper is composed from scratch to meet your assignment instructions. We then use a plagiarism-detection software to ensure that it is, actually, completely plagiarism free. We ensure that there is no way
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Try out PMC Labs and tell us what you think. Learn More. Collaborative learning is a widely used instructional method, but the learning potential of this instructional method is often underused in practice.
Therefore, the importance of various factors underlying effective collaborative learning should be determined. In the current study, five different life sciences undergraduate courses with successful collaborative-learning results were selected. This study focuses on phd thesis politeness that increased the effectiveness of collaboration in these courses, according to the students. Nine focus group interviews were conducted and analyzed.
Results show that factors evoking effective collaboration were student autonomy and self-regulatory behavior, combined with a challenging, phd thesis politeness, open, and complex group task that required the phd thesis politeness to create something new and original.
The design factors of these courses fostered a sense of responsibility and of shared ownership of both the collaborative process and the end product of the group assignment. In addition, students reported the absence of any free riders in these group assignments. Interestingly, it was observed that students seemed to value their sense of achievement, their learning processes, and the products they were working on more than their grades.
It is concluded that collaborative learning in higher education should be designed using challenging and relevant tasks that build shared ownership with students. Students may learn a lot from working in groups, but the learning potential of collaboration is underused in practice Johnson et al.
In collaborative learning, students participate in small-group activities in which they share their knowledge and expertise. In these student-driven activities, the teacher usually acts as a facilitator Kirschner, Several decades of empirical research have demonstrated the positive relationship between collaborative learning and student achievement, effort, persistence, and motivation for reviews, see Slavin, ; Webb and Palinscar, ; Barron, ; Johnson et al. Collaborative learning potentially promotes deep learning, in which students engage in high-quality social interaction, such as discussing contradictory information Visschers-Pleijers et al.
In science education, a deep-learning approach is crucial for understanding concepts and phd thesis politeness processes Van Boxtel, Understanding of these concepts involves a process of conceptual change, a process particularly activated in collaborative learning, phd thesis politeness, whereby students interact by explaining to and questioning one another critically Van Boxtel et al. In previous papers, we have explored and emphasized the relevance of collaborative learning in undergraduate biology courses Wiegant et al, phd thesis politeness.
By phd thesis politeness university student achievement in a biology course in individual and group settings, Linton et al. Besides these cognitive benefits, collaborative learning provides social skills needed for future professional work in the field of science. Just forming groups, phd thesis politeness, however, does not automatically result in better learning and motivation Salomon and Globerson, ; Gillies, phd thesis politeness Khosa and Volet, Dividing work also implies that students lose the potential learning effect of collaborating, since the extent to which students benefit from working with other students depends on the quality of their interactions Van Boxtel et al.
Insight into factors that facilitate collaborative learning is critical for understanding how collaboration can be used effectively in higher education. Therefore, in the present study, we explore factors that optimize the quality of collaboration, using examples of effective group work in five different life sciences courses, phd thesis politeness.
Social interaction is crucial for effective collaboration Volet et al. Learning outcomes of collaborative-learning groups have been found to depend on the quality of student discussions, including argumentation Teasley, ; Chinn et al.
Explaining things to one another and discussing subject matter may lead to deeper phd thesis politeness, to recognition of misconceptions, and to the strengthening of connections between new information and previously learned information Wittrock, The question of how to organize collaboration in a way that promotes these kinds of interactions is paramount.
Decades of research on group work have phd thesis politeness in the identification of various factors that potentially enhance the effectiveness of collaboration. These factors can be differentiated as primary factors design characteristics and secondary or mediating factors group-process characteristics. Regarding primary factors, groups need to be small three to five students to obtain meaningful interaction Lou et al.
With respect to group composition, mixed-ability groups have been found to increase performance for students of lower ability, but this composition does not necessarily benefit high-ability students Webb et al. Heterogeneity, with respect to diversity of perspectives and styles, has been found to increase learning, particularly in groups working on tasks that require creativity Kozhevnikov et al. The nature of the task has been shown to be an important factor as well.
Open and ill-structured tasks promote higher-level interaction and improve reasoning and applicative and evaluative thinking to a greater extent than closed tasks Gillies, In addition, complex tasks provoke deeper-level interactions than simple tasks Hertz-Lazarowitz, Concerning secondary or intermediate factors affecting group work, positive interdependence theory is one of the best-founded theories explaining the quality of interaction in collaborative learning Slavin, ; Johnson and Johnson,; Gully et al.
According to this theory, collaboration is enhanced when positive interdependence exists among group members. This is achieved when students perceive the contribution of each individual to be essential for the group to succeed in completing the assigned activity Johnson and Johnson, Positive interdependence results in both individual accountability and promotive interaction.
Methods of inducing positive interdependence interaction are either reward or task based Johnson et al. According to Slavin, collaborative learning phd thesis politeness rarely successful without group rewards. In higher education, however, findings on the effects of reward-based interdependence are inconclusive. The main concern is that rewards stimulate extrinsic motivation and may be detrimental to intrinsic motivation Parkinson and St. George, Intrinsically motivated students put effort into a task because they are interested in the task itself, while extrinsically motivated students are interested in the reward or grade Deci and Ryan, Strong incentives, such as grades, could steer student motivation toward phd thesis politeness reward and subsequently reduce the task to being a means to an end.
Serrano and Ponshowever, found that using rewards individual grades created high positive interdependence in group work at a university level. In contrast, Sears and Pai found that rewards were not crucial factors affecting group behavior. Their study showed that groups continued to work even after the reward was removed, whereas the efforts of students working individually decreased after the reward was removed.
The effects of task structuring on collaborative learning are, however, not clear Fink, ; Hänze and Berger, ; Serrano and Pons, Hänze and Berger observed no differences in achievement between students who worked in jigsaw-structured groups and students who worked individually. In contrast, the observations of Brewer and Klein indicated that students in groups with given roles plus rewards interacted significantly more frequently than students in groups with given rewards only or in groups without structured interdependence factors.
Over structuring interaction processes, on the other hand, could threaten intrinsic motivation and disturb natural interaction processes Dillenbourg, Although it is widely accepted that positive interdependence has been shown to be crucial in evoking social interaction, in practice, phd thesis politeness, university students often tend to merely go through the motions and choose the solution requiring the least effort, which explains why positive interdependence often does not emerge Salomon and Phd thesis politeness, Additional methods are necessary to encourage quality interactions that enhance learning.
Moreover, the mixed results of university education studies concerning structuring interdependence—using either rewards or task structuring—do not solve the challenge phd thesis politeness how to create interdependence without disturbing the intrinsic motivation of students. Forcing students to interact could endanger student autonomy and motivation, while merely putting students together has been shown to be ineffective.
Despite the considerable amount of research on collaborative learning, less is known about how to structure university-level group work in order to capitalize on the benefits of collaborative learning.
The studies discussed earlier focused on primary and secondary education and are not fully applicable to higher education, because students in undergraduate classes may have different schedules and often have not met before, phd thesis politeness. Moreover, group work of university students is mostly organized outside class hours in the absence of teachers.
Furthermore, literature in this area may be limited in applicability, as many studies of factors affecting collaboration have used quasi experimental designs, in which outcomes of two or three designs were compared Johnson and Johnson, A phd thesis politeness of this method is that only the hypothesized independent variables are studied, while other important factors contributing to effectiveness might be overlooked.
In our study, phd thesis politeness, we approached the theme retrospectively, investigating the learning of student groups known to have collaborated and achieved highly, phd thesis politeness, according to their teachers.
Rather than focusing on learning outcomes, we explored how group work in these courses was structured. We explicitly focused on positive examples of effective collaborative learning, as best practices should be communicated to others Dewey,p. In the current study, we selected five different life sciences undergraduate courses that comprised successful group-work assignments. The specific question this study aimed to address was, according to the students, what factors increased collaboration in these courses?
By uncovering the factors that make collaborative learning fruitful, we aim to provide useful guidelines for instructors implementing collaborative learning. The present study involved focus group interviews with nine groups of second- and third-year students of five different undergraduate life sciences courses. We depended heavily on these focus group interviews to develop our understandings.
Furthermore, the group exchanges of experiences and perspectives promoted breadth, as well as depth, in our phd thesis politeness of the cognitive, behavioral, and situational factors contributing to the effectiveness of the collaboration, phd thesis politeness.
The particular courses were selected because they all implemented group work that, according to teacher assessments and student evaluations, was very effective. We approached the instructors of these courses with the request to ask their students to volunteer in focus group discussions.
Students were willing to participate in these focus group discussions, phd thesis politeness, although not all students were able to meet at phd thesis politeness scheduled times. No specific reward was promised for participating in focus group discussions, phd thesis politeness.
Between two and 10 students participated in each of the nine focus group interviews see Table 1. We focused on five courses that were all small-enrollment, upper-division courses in which 15—35 students participated per course. In all courses, collaborative activities occurred during class hours but also outside of class. In some courses, the out-of-class cooperative activities even exceeded the in-class activities. Course A: The first course was part of a biology honors program.
Students had to perform all the activities necessary to produce the book. The project was strongly student-led, and students assigned themselves tasks necessary for finishing the project. More details of this course are described elsewhere Wiegant et al. Course B: Students in the immunology course, mostly third-year students, were assigned the phd thesis politeness of writing, in groups of four, a short research project on an immunological topic.
The assignment was structured in three parts: in part 1, groups designed a draft of their proposal; in part 2, the groups peer reviewed the draft of another group; and in part 3, the groups received the draft and comments of yet another group, which they had to finish and present.
The assignment comprised approximately half of the course. Course C: In the advanced cell biology course, three small teams of four or five students collaborated intensively during a semester of 15 weeks to formulate three PhD proposals within an overarching theme.
Because the course was student-led, the teachers refrained from guiding the students in their decisions, instead taking a facilitating role by asking critical questions and providing feedback.
As a result of the project, phd thesis politeness, the teams presented and defended their research program and the three research proposals before a jury of experts.
More details of this course are given elsewhere Wiegant et al. Course D: The objective of the molecular cell biology course was to learn to design a research project in groups of four. In this course, students were required to complete multiple assignments, such as reviewing a paper, developing a research proposal, designing experiments, phd thesis politeness, and writing and defending their proposals. Groups met with their supervisor once a week and were supposed to keep the course coordinator informed on their progress.
Course E: As a part of the pharmacy course, third-year students, in groups of four to six participants, were required to analyze the quality of a specific pharmacotherapy. The assignments were authentic and were phd thesis politeness by external commissioning companies. Interviewers stimulated and moderated discussions, ensuring depth as well as diversity, phd thesis politeness.
The Perfect Defense: The Oral Defense of a Dissertation
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May 31, · Bob Roberts, Ph.D. unless one of two things obtain. First, your organization has a set of internal customs or formal rules regarding the signature. Second, if your degrees are in different areas. For example, Bob Roberts. Ph.D. Management Science. MS Nursing. For interrelated fields, the Ph.D. supersedes the master's degree and ceases being Microstock photography business plan: top dissertation abstract ghostwriters for hire for masters essay on politeness. Questions to ask when reviewing a business plan, essay on what i want to become in life help me write phd essay on hacking custom cover letter editor service online. Cover letter for a highschool student with no experience PhD thesis. Shantini S Karalasingam list of values revealed in the participants’ language use showed that some participants exhibited similar values like politeness and tolerance while
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